Scientific Revolution and Restoration of the monarchy

In a nutshell

The Scientific Revolution started in the first half of the 17th and marked the beginning of modern science. Thus, during this period, subjects like mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy were developed. In 1660, King Charles II was invited by the Parliament to resume his kingdom, as a result, the monarchy was restored in England.

The Scientific Revolution

During the Renaissance period, there was poor scientific investigation and the standard of knowledge was linked to a religious doctrine. However, this changed when the Scientific Revolution started, scientific observers began further studying the world that surrounds the human being. Figures like Nicolaus Copernicus, Rene Descartes, and Isaac Newton played an important role in this era.

Scientific Methods

The concept of Method was originated probably by Socrates (ca 469 - 399 BC). The Socratic method was used by teachers and students in philosophical discussions to have a better understanding of ethics and politics.

There are three different ways to study the phenomena of nature:

The deductive method in which the conclusion necessarily goes along with the premises. This method is used with mathematics, logic, and geography.

The experimental method in which a hypothesis is verified through experience. This method is applied in physics, chemistry, and biology.

The classification method consists of placing an organism into a group, family, or class according to its characteristics. This method is commonly employed in biology.

The Scientific Method that we know today is the study of the world through observation, experiment, math, and inductive reasoning. A great influence on the scientific method was established by characters such as Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. The Scientific Revolution finished in England with the work of Isaac Newton, his work showed the law of gravity and motion by which planets move in their courses.

The Restoration of the monarchy

In 1660, the Parliament invited Charles II to return to his reign from his exile in France, most Englishmen were happy about his return since they felt oppressed by the puritans' strict rules. Charles II's court was considered one of the worsts in England's history, so when the plague and the Great Fire occurred, the puritans believed it was God's punishment for the king's immorality. In 1665, London faced an outbreak of the bubonic plague, a year later a fire destroyed most of the city in four days.

In 1685, after Charles II's death, his brother James II succeeded him. He tried to maintain a balance between Catholics and Protestants during his reign, however, this led to problems with the Parliament. In 1688, a group of Protestant nobles appealed to William of Orange (Husband of the Protestant James' daughter, Mary) since Mary of Modena (James II's second wife) had given birth to a possible Catholic successor of King James II.

In November 1688, William arrived in England with an army and James II flew abroad. The collaboration between the crown and the Parliament was a success with the Glorious Revolution, which celebrated the establishment of new monarchs without a single drop of blood. The reign of William III and Mary II was a period of economical growth for England, London was turning into the financial capital of the world, and the Bill of Rights of 1689 in which a tax raise or change of army was strictly a decision in agreement with the Parliament; this symbolized the victory of a constitutional or parliamentary monarchy.

The Birth of Political Parties

In the 18th century, Queen Anne succeeded her sister (Mary II) and her brother-in-law William III (of Orange). During her reign, Scotland became united with England with the Act of Union of 1707. As a consequence, many Scottish migrated to England and other colonies.

The first political parties in Britain were the Whigs and the Tories. The Whigs supported the Parliament and economical growth. Au contraire, the Tories supported the monarchy and the divine right of the king.

Elections took place in the House of Commons and the first prime minister was the Whig Sir Robert Walpole who was in power from 1721 to 1742. Walpole tried to maintain England out of foreign conflicts in order to increase trade and maintain taxes down. In addition, he removed customs control on raw materials, as a result, smuggling was under control and the government's income started to increase.

In 1735, the Whig William Pitt joined the Parliament as Walpole's opponent, then in 1766, he became prime minister. During this period, new values were installed in England such as power, wealth, and prestige. As well as, the expansion of England's possessions to the Caribbean, India and North America.

The spread of cultural debate

The spread of cultural debate occurred during the 18th century. It was born by the need for new ideas and new ways of expression, this was also linked to the Enlightenment and the spread of rationalistic ideas. The principal means to spread the ideas was the newspaper. There were many successful journals during the period, one of the most representative was Daniel Defoe with his periodical The Review.

One of the aims of journals was to accomplish political and intellectual independence. For this reason, many politicians got scared of the fact that the masses could in some way get access to power. This occasioned an increase in price, so many readers stopped buying the newspaper. Throughout the century, many journalists fought for the right to cover Parliamentary debates and defend liberal principles. From 1772, reporters could attend the Parliamentary sessions and write about them.